Treaties in Canada: A Comprehensive Guide

1. Historic Numbered Treaties (1871–1921)

The 11 Numbered Treaties were agreements between the Crown (Canada) and First Nations, mainly covering land surrenders in exchange for reserves, annuities, and rights. Most were negotiated in English, with Indigenous leaders speaking their own languages (Cree, Ojibwe, Dene, etc.).

Treaty	Year	Region	Key Nations	Language Used	Key Provisions
Treaty 1	1871	Southern Manitoba	Anishinaabe, Swampy Cree	English, Ojibwe, Cree	160 acres per family, farming tools, schools.
Treaty 2	1871	Manitoba	Anishinaabe	English, Ojibwe	Similar to Treaty 1, but larger land area.
Treaty 3	1873	NW Ontario & Manitoba	Ojibwe	English, Ojibwe	Fishing/hunting rights, $5 annuities.
Treaty 4	1874	Southern SK & MB	Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine	English, Cree, Nakoda	Reserves, farming assistance.
Treaty 5	1875	Northern MB & SK	Cree, Saulteaux	English, Cree	Expanded later (1908–1910) for more land.
Treaty 6	1876	Central AB & SK	Plains Cree, Woods Cree, Assiniboine	English, Cree	“Medicine Chest Clause” (healthcare promise).
Treaty 7	1877	Southern AB	Blackfoot, Stoney Nakoda, Tsuut’ina	English, Blackfoot, Nakoda	Focus on ranching (not farming like others).
Treaty 8	1899	Northern AB, BC, SK, NWT	Cree, Dene, Dane-zaa	English, Cree, Dene	Guaranteed hunting/fishing rights.
Treaty 9	1905–06	Northern ON	Ojibwe, Cree	English, Ojibwe, Cree	Promised economic support (rarely fulfilled).
Treaty 10	1906	Northern SK	Cree, Dene	English, Cree	Last “numbered” treaty in the Prairies.
Treaty 11	1921	NWT	Dene, Gwich’in	English, Dene	Signed during oil/gold rush; many promises broken.

Key Issues:

Many treaties were misinterpreted (oral vs. written terms).
Broken promises (e.g., starvation due to banned hunting, underfunded schools).
Ongoing disputes over land use (e.g., pipelines on unceded territory).

2. Peace & Friendship Treaties (1725–1779)

Eastern Canada (Maritimes, Quebec) – Focused on coexistence, not land surrender.

Treaty	Year	Region	Key Nations
Boston Treaty	1725	Mi’kmaq, Wolastoqey	English, Mi’kmaq
Halifax Treaties	1760–61	Mi’kmaq	English, Mi’kmaq
Treaty of Niagara	1764	Haudenosaunee, Anishinaabe	English, Anishinaabemowin

Significance: Still cited in court cases today (e.g., fishing rights in R v. Marshall).

3. Upper Canada Treaties (1764–1862)

Pre-Confederation land agreements in Ontario.

Treaty	Year	Nations	Key Details
Treaty of Niagara	1764	Haudenosaunee, Anishinaabe	Belt Covenant (Wampum) reaffirmed.
Huron Tract Treaty	1827	Anishinaabe	Controversial land surrender.

4. Vancouver Island (Douglas) Treaties (1850–1854)

14 treaties signed by Gov. James Douglas with Coast Salish nations.

Language: English, but oral agreements in SENĆOŦEN, Hul’q’umi’num’.
Issue: Poorly explained; many nations didn’t realize they were surrendering land.

5. Modern Treaties (1975–Present)

Land claims agreements since 1973 (after Calder v. BC recognized Indigenous land rights).

Treaty	Year	Region	Nations	Key Points
James Bay & Northern Quebec Agreement	1975	Quebec	Cree, Inuit	First modern treaty; halted Hydro-Québec dams.
Nunavut Land Claims Agreement	1993	Nunavut	Inuit	Led to Nunavut’s creation (1999).
Nisga’a Treaty	2000	BC	Nisga’a	First BC treaty in 100+ years; self-government.

Total modern treaties: ~25, including:

Tłı̨chǫ Agreement (NWT)
Tsawwassen Treaty (BC)
Inuvialuit Final Agreement (NWT/Yukon)

6. Unceded Land & Disputed Treaties

Many nations never signed treaties, including:

Most of British Columbia (except Douglas Treaties/Nisga’a).
Algonquin Territory (ON/QC) – Ongoing negotiations.

Key Takeaways

Treaties were nation-to-nation agreements – but Canada often broke promises.
Language barriers led to misunderstandings (oral vs. written terms).
Modern treaties include self-government, resource-sharing.
Unceded land remains a major issue (e.g., Wet’suwet’en protests).

Further Learning:

📜 Treaty Texts (Gov’t of Canada)
📖 Treaty Words by Aimée Craft (Anishinaabe lawyer)
🎥 Trick or Treaty? (2014 doc on Treaty 9)