Introduction
Residential schools were a dark and devastating chapter in Canadian history, designed to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. For over a century, these institutions systematically stripped Indigenous children of their language, culture, and family ties, leaving lasting intergenerational trauma. The legacy of residential schools continues to affect Indigenous communities today, as Canada grapples with reconciliation and the ongoing process of truth and healing.
This article explores the origins, operation, and consequences of residential schools, as well as the steps toward justice and reconciliation in recent decades.
Origins of Residential Schools
The concept of residential schooling in Canada emerged from colonial policies aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples. As early as the 17th century, Christian missionaries established schools for Indigenous children, but the residential school system as a formal government policy began in the 19th century.
Early Mission Schools
Before Confederation (1867), churches, particularly Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, and Presbyterian missionaries, ran day and boarding schools for Indigenous children. These early schools were often small and had limited reach, but they laid the groundwork for the later government-funded system.
The Role of the Canadian Government
In the 1870s, the Canadian government, under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, adopted an aggressive assimilation policy. Inspired by similar systems in the United States, officials believed that removing Indigenous children from their families and communities would “civilize” them.
The Indian Act (1876) gave the federal government control over Indigenous education, and in 1883, the government began funding residential schools in partnership with churches. The Department of Indian Affairs, led by officials like Duncan Campbell Scott, saw residential schools as a tool to eliminate Indigenous cultures, languages, and traditions.
Operation of the Residential School System
At their peak, over 130 residential schools operated across Canada, with the last one closing as recently as 1996. These institutions were run primarily by Christian churches, including the Roman Catholic Church (which operated about 60% of the schools), the Anglican Church, the United Church, and the Presbyterian Church.
Life Inside the Schools
Indigenous children, often taken forcibly from their families, endured harsh conditions:
- Forced Separation: Children as young as four were taken from their communities, sometimes through coercion or threats to parents.
- Cultural Suppression: Students were forbidden from speaking their languages or practicing traditions. Punishments for disobedience were severe, including physical abuse.
- Poor Living Conditions: Many schools were overcrowded, underfunded, and unsanitary, leading to disease outbreaks. Tuberculosis and influenza were rampant, and death rates were shockingly high.
- Abuse and Neglect: Emotional, physical, and sexual abuse were widespread. Survivors have recounted horrific experiences at the hands of school staff.
High Mortality Rates
Thousands of children died in residential schools due to disease, malnutrition, and abuse. Recent investigations, including the discovery of unmarked graves at former school sites (such as Kamloops in 2021), have revealed the extent of these tragedies. Estimates suggest over 6,000 children may have died in these institutions, though the true number may never be known.
Resistance and Closure
Despite the oppressive system, Indigenous families and communities resisted residential schools in various ways:
- Hiding Children: Some parents refused to send their children or hid them from authorities.
- Escapes: Many children ran away, though few succeeded in returning home permanently.
- Advocacy: Indigenous leaders and activists, as well as some non-Indigenous allies, spoke out against the schools.
Decline and Closure
By the mid-20th century, the brutality of residential schools became harder to ignore. Reports like the 1966 Hawthorn Report criticized the system, and in 1969, the federal government took over administration from the churches.
However, the last residential school, Gordon’s Indian Residential School in Saskatchewan, did not close until 1996.
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2008-2015)
In 2008, the Canadian government established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) as part of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement. The TRC’s mandate was to document the experiences of survivors and promote reconciliation.
Findings of the TRC
The TRC collected testimony from over 6,750 survivors and concluded that residential schools were a key instrument of cultural genocide. Its 2015 report included 94 Calls to Action, urging reforms in education, justice, and Indigenous rights.
Apologies and Reparations
- 2008: Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued a formal apology on behalf of the Canadian government.
- 2017: Prime Minister Justin Trudeau apologized on behalf of Canada to former students in Newfoundland and Labrador, who had been excluded from earlier settlements.
- Financial Compensation: The government paid billions in reparations to survivors through the Independent Assessment Process (IAP) and the Common Experience Payment (CEP).
Ongoing Legacy and Reconciliation Efforts
The trauma of residential schools persists in Indigenous communities through:
- Intergenerational Trauma: Survivors and their descendants continue to suffer from the psychological and cultural impacts.
- Loss of Language and Culture: Many Indigenous languages are endangered due to suppression in residential schools.
- Calls for Justice: Indigenous groups demand further accountability, particularly from the Catholic Church, which has been slow to apologize and provide reparations.
Recent Developments
- Unmarked Graves: Since 2021, ground-penetrating radar has uncovered hundreds of unmarked graves at former school sites, sparking national grief and renewed calls for justice.
- Reconciliation Efforts: Some progress has been made in implementing the TRC’s Calls to Action, but many remain unfulfilled.
Conclusion
Residential schools were a deliberate tool of cultural genocide, leaving deep scars on Indigenous communities. While Canada has taken steps toward reconciliation—through apologies, the TRC, and financial settlements—true healing requires ongoing commitment to justice, education, and the revitalization of Indigenous cultures.
The discovery of unmarked graves serves as a painful reminder of this history, reinforcing the need for truth before reconciliation. As Canadians, acknowledging this past is essential to building a more just and inclusive future.
